1.3 Second Day

by Ulrich Utiger

Abstract

On the second day, an expanse called raqiya in Hebrew is created. Inside and outside of Genesis, this word is always used to describe the sky, mostly in a divine dimension. The root of this noun is the verb raqa, which means stretch or beat out, a metal for instance. The expanse is named heaven using the same word shamayim as for the other heavens already created. Therefore, a new smaller heaven is created, which indicates a restriction of the frame (sec. 1.1.6). As the previous context is our galaxy, according to figure 3. So the expanse is referring in the first place to the protoSun and the protoplanetary disk, which is held together by the invisible gravitational field of the Sun. On a lower level, the expanse also refers to our atmosphere and the primordial ocean.

Contents

The Early Solar System
The Early Earth
The Late Veneer
References

1.3.1 The Early Solar System

And God said: ‘Let there be an expanse in the midst of the waters, and let it divide the waters from the waters.’ And God made the , and divided the waters which were under the expanse from the waters which were above the expanse. And God called the expanse ‘heaven’. Evening came and morning came: the second day (Gen 1:6-8).

What Genesis 1:6-8 describes is not simply a repetition of what the first day already states on the solar system as second reference (tab.2) but is related to an advanced stage in its formation after that of the spiral nebula. When the solar cloud collapsed, its matter was increasingly compressed, especially in the center of the rotating disk (sec. 1.2.2), forming the protoSun before nuclear fusion took place. Therefore, the solar disk was heated in the same manner as a gas when it is compressed. In addition, it became too dense in order for radiation to escape directly to space. The hottest region was in the center because pressure is maximal there. It will become hot enough to ignite nuclear fusion. Inside the disk, the temperature never rose above about 400 K at about 4 to 5 AUfrom the protoSun. It is thought that at about 1 AU the maximum temperature from the protoSun was around 2000 K, which was enough to break any preexisting grains of dust into their constituent atoms (Allègre 2001 pp. 134; Rothery et al. 2011 pp. 292-297).

Subsequently, the disk became more transparent to radiation and began to cool. The temperature in the disk depended on the distance from the protoSun: the further, the cooler. As a result, the previously dissociated dust particles condensed directly from the gaseous to the solid state and formed new grains of different materials according to their condensation points. Given the temperature differences in the disk, these materials condensed at different locations for a given time. Thereby, condensation started earlier beyond the snow line at about 5 AU, where almost all materials (except hydrogen and helium) were in the solid state, including volatiles such as water, ammoniac and methane (Allègre 2001 pp. 135-157; Rothery et al. 2011 pp. 297-298).

At this stage of the protoplanetary disk, the condensed materials had initially the form of dust particles, which then clung together by fortuitous collisions to grains of up to 10 millimeters in a similar way as ice crystals in clouds stick together to form snowflakes. On the average, this happened over a period of about 10’000 years. However, like condensation, the rate of coagulation was not everywhere the same because it depends on grain density, which was high at 1 AU from the Sun. So it took only about 2000 years to produce particles of up to ten millimeters while at 30 AU (the Neptun region) it took about 5000 years to produce particles of about 0.3 millimeters because grain density was slow out there. As mentioned above, on the other hand, the temperature was low enough beyond 5 AU for water to condense to fluffy ice crystals, which accelerated the coagulation rate somewhat at this place (Rothery et al. 2011 pp. 23, 50, 298-300).

The grains were then coagulated further by random encounters. Witnesses of this process are a certain type of meteorites called chondrites, which were formed during this stage of the solar system and have not been modified due to melting. This is why they preserved the structure of the coagulated grains (fig. 5). Their age can be determined by radiometric dating, which compares known decay rates of certain radioactive isotopes with those found in chondrites. This way the age of our solar system can be determined to about 4.5682 Ga, which refers to the time when the first dust particles condensed after the solar nebula reached its maximal temperature (Allègre 2001 pp. 117-119; Bouvier & Wadhwa 2010; Rothery et al. 2011 pp. 300-301).

Figure 5 : the inner structure of chondrites clearly shows the coagulation of dust and grains of the early solar system into larger bodies.

During the next 100’000 years, the accretion process by random collisions produced a profusion of potato-like bodies termed planetesimals (tiny planets) with diameters between 0.1 and 10 km, which lead to an increased gravitational attraction of the larger planetesimals on their smaller neighbors. This is why a slow transition from random collisions to what is known as gravitational focusing took place, which considerably increased the number of collisions between the bodies while producing still larger planetesimals called planetary embryos, thus reducing the number of bodies. It is thought that the asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter remained in this stage of formation because the nearby gravitational field of Jupiter perturbed the further growth of planetesimals. The so-called giant impacts between the planetary embryos were able to melt the newly combined mass, creating a liquid mantle termed a magma ocean. It is estimated that the inner planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars) would have taken about 10 million years to reach half their mass, and about 100 million years to fully complete their growth (Allègre 2001 pp. 159-181; Rothery et al. pp. 50-54, 301-304)

The outer planets beyond 5 AU (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptun) formed at a much slower pace because the matter was thinner distributed, which reduced the probability of encounters between the bodies. This applies for all stages: coagulation of dust, gravitational focusing of planetesimals and giant impacts of planetary embryos. They also captured the volatile substances such as ice that the inner planets were not able to coagulate because on their orbits they were in the gaseous state. They were even able to incorporate hydrogen and helium. So it comes as no surprise that the inner and outer planets have a different chemical composition (Rothery et al. 2011 pp. 304-306).

An important event further accentuated this difference: the collapse of molecular clouds is indeed accompanied by a strong bipolar gaseous outflow mainly perpendicular to each side of the disk caused by the infall of matter not entirely captured by the protostar. The easiest way of escape of this gas is perpendicular to the disk, that is, its rotation axis, but they can also escape parallel to the disk. More complex and less narrow stellar winds appear when protostars enter the T-Tauri stage named after their prototype T-Tauri in the Taurus constellation. In the case of our solar system, this happened about one million years after the collapse of the solar nebula. Such early stellar winds are capable of moving away freely orbiting bodies in the inner solar system of up to 10 meters in size. Thereby, they also remove remaining dust and gas such that the jets can be observed (fig. 6; Allègre 2001 pp. 156; Cranmer 2008; Rothery et al. 2011 pp. 292-294, 301, 306, 335-337, 371; Beuther 2014 pp. 440-443).

Figure 6: These images taken by the Hubble Space Telescope show protostars surrounded by thin disks. The protostars in the center are hidden by the dark disk, but their light is reflected from the clouds on both sides of the disk. The last three stars are emitting powerful bipolar jets, which eject part of the incoming matter. HK Tauri does not have such a jet because it is not yet in this stage. Our solar system must have looked like these stellar systems in its early stages (source: hubblesite.org).

The T Tauri stage is also the time when the inflow of matter from other parts than the disk of a star in formation decreases and an equilibrium between centrifugal and gravitational forces is about to be reached. The spiral form of the disk disappears and rings form around the center similar to the asteroid belt that remained in this state. On a smaller scale, as a sort of a mini solar system, such rings also exist around Saturn (Reeves 1988 p. 138; Allègre 2001 p. 138; Rothery et al. 2011 p. 285).

At the end of the T Tauri stage, stars begin their nuclear activity and emit charged particles (mainly electrons and protons) from the upper atmosphere of the Sun, the corona, which is a phenomenon that is much stronger when the star is young (Wood et al. 2002; Wyatt 2008; Rothery et al. 2011 p. 195, 278-279). These stellar winds swept away all volatiles like hydrogen and water vapor inside the snow line of the planetary disk, while at the same time the planets accreted (Allègre 2001 pp. 178-179; Baines et al. 2013). However, it is not entirely clear to what extent the planets were affected by this cleaning. Some authors argue that the inner planets accreted completely dry (Albarède 2009), which was very probably not the case.

In any case, the inner planets in formation, including the Earth, lost their primitive first atmospheres composed of hydrogenous gases like hydrogen, water, methane, ammonia, etc. They accreted mainly silicates, that is, dry matter, whereas the giant outer planets like Jupiter and Saturn have a rather watery gaseous composition (Rothery et al. 2011 pp. 300-301). Furthermore, the stellar winds also created a big bubble outside the solar system, the heliosphere, although part of it were captured by the outer gaseous planets and by comets orbiting in the Oort cloud, from where they visit us from time to time (Allègre 2001 pp. 152-153, 185; Wood et al. 2002; Rothery et al. 2011 pp. 269-271).

This removing of water and other volatiles from the solar system inside the snow line is without doubt a separation of the waters that left behind the four inner planets containing little water: on one side of them is the Sun mainly composed of hydrogen and on the other side the large planets – also containing a lot of hydrogen and water – as well as the heliosphere. But on what side are the high and the low waters? This can be answered easily: as is commonly known, the high and low are illusions provoked by gravity. What we call high on earth is what is far from its center of gravity, irrespective of the direction. Correspondingly, low is what is near to it. In the whole frame of the solar system, however, the large planets are far from the center of gravity, that is, the Sun. This is why they represent the high waters. Correspondingly, the Sun represents the low waters, although it makes its apparent orbit high in the sky as seen in the reduced context of the Earth.

This is rather a unilateral separation in favor of the Sun, since the outer planets account for only a 1/700^th of the total mass of the solar system (the mass of the inner planets is negligible). But this is nevertheless a separation because the hydrogen and water blown out of the solar system to the heliosphere must be taken into account too. In addition, the separation must rather be understood within the context of space distribution. The heliosphere and the outer planets occupy indeed more space than the Sun. Therefore, the expand, also called firmament, means the solar gravitational space, which makes the planets move around the Sun almost as exactly as a train runs on rails, as if they were held by something really firm and transparent.

 

 1.3.2 The Early Earth

Figure7: Contrary to what is often believed, the medieval Church did not adhere to a flat Earth cosmology but adopted the Greek view of a spherical Earth (Vogel 1995 p. 5), as this picture by Hildegard of Bingen named God’s work from the twelfth century illustrates. One can also see the four seasons occurring at the same time at different places of the Earth.

The second reference of Genesis 1:6-8 is restricted to the planet Earth surrounded by its atmosphere, according to figure 3 and table 2. As described in the previous section, the Earth was formed by gravitational focusing of planetary embryos during its last stage. The embryo that will become the young Earth was heated increasingly as most of the kinetic energy in a collision is transformed into heat. The energies released were important enough to produce a magma ocean (Rothery et al. 2011 pp. 51, 56-60; Baines et al. 2013). As such hot conditions are reminiscent of hellish fire, this early stage of Earth’s formation was called Hadean, which is derived from Hades, the ancient Greek god of the underworld considered the place where souls go after dead. However, this must not necessarily be hell… (McCarthy & Rubidge 2005 p. 70).

The Hadean is the time from the beginning of Earth’s accretion 4567 Ma to the oldest rocks found on Earth dated to about 4030 Ma (Gradstein et al. 2012 p. 360). However, not all authors use this convention. Some define it as the era older than the first evidence of life 3.5 Ga. Others equal its beginning with the Moon-forming impact 4.5 Ga and the end with the late heavy bombardment 3.9 Ga (Condi 2011 p. 261; Sleep 2016).

In the previous section, it was also pointed out that the inner planets accreted dry materials. This has to be clarified further because there is obviously water on Earth. How and when it got its volatile content is a still ongoing debate. Genda & Ikoma (2007) suggested that the solar nebula survived until Earth’s accretion was completed and its atmosphere was then attracted gravitationally from the hydrogen-rich nebula and oxidized to form water. To account for the difference in the isotopic fingerprint of the nebula and the ocean, they argue that seawater is a mixture from different sources. However, this proposal is difficult to harmonize with the relatively weak gravitational force of the inner planets and the violent solar winds that swept through the whole system, removing its volatile content in the inner region (Rothery et al. 2011 p. 371).

Other scholars argue that some water and other volatiles could have been incorporated from the solar nebula into the dust coagulation process by adsorption such that Earth’s accretion would not have been completely dry. Silicate molecules contain indeed a silicon/oxygen group binding various other elements, especially metals. They can easily incorporate water into their crystalline structure to form so-called hydrates. A well-known silicate hydrate is cement, which obviously can incorporate a lot of water to become concrete used in construction. Gypsum is another hydrate that can include even more water and is also used in construction as plaster. It has a similar molecular structure than cement with the difference that there is a sulfur atom in the place of the silicon atom. Since the major components of molecular clouds are water and silicates, the dust particles in the protoplanetary disk may have formed similar hydrates through various processes (Allègre 2001 pp. 143-144; et al. 2010; King et al. 2010; Rothery et al. 2011 pp. 297-300, 371; Vattuone et al. 2013; Asaduzzaman et al. 2015; Daly & Schultz 2018).

Water was even better incorporated in outer objects like certain meteorites, asteroids, Kuiper Belt bodies beyond Neptune and the still more distant Oort cloud comets because water existed there in the form of ice (Rothery et al. 2011 pp. 269-271, 321, 326-327). Therefore, it is not surprising that they have been considered to have supplied water to Earth (Jewitt et al. 2007). As far as comets are concerned, however, this is unlikely because their content of the hydrogen isotope deuterium does not match the one of Earth’s ocean (Drake & Campins 2005; Vattuone et al. 2013; O’Brien et al. 2018). On the other hand, carbonaceous chondrites (meteorites) are isotopically compatible. It is thought that Jupiter and Saturn made an inward and outward movement during Earth’s accretion, which is termed the grand tack in analogy with the turning of a sailboat. This mixed up the distribution of dry planetesimals from the inner disk with the wet ones from the outer disk parent to carbonaceous chondrites. The future Earth captured part of these wet objects still before the last giant impact (Walsh et al. 2011; Walsh et al. 2012; Sarafian et al. 2014; Alexander 2017; O’Brien et al. 2018).

However, all these scenarios have their little problems, which is probably why each of them occurred to some degree and contributed some water to Earth (Drake & Campins 2005; Dishoeck et al. 2014; O’Brien et al. 2018). The question what scenario contributed most water is not settled, so research is still going on. On the other hand, the question what scenario best fits Genesis 1:6-8 is not very important. What counts is that coagulated hydrated bodies were dispersed near Earth’s orbit at some stage, regardless of whether the dusts captured some water inside them before solar winds blew it away or were initially completely dry and water was added later until the last giant impact.

The subsequent development must be similar to the early formation of the solar system, which in the beginning was also composed of a dispersed hydrogenic and wet mass that was then separated into the Sun and the outer protoplanets with the rather dry terrestrial planets in between. Then the protoSun was contracted and heated up. This stage corresponds to the accretion of the protoEarth, which also heated up because the kinetic energy of the impactors was transformed into heat such that the silicates became molten. When hydrated silicates or other hydrates are sufficiently heated, their crystal structure is broken. As a result, they release the enclosed water. This is why Portland cement is produced by heating limestone and plaster by heating gypsum. So during the later stage of Earth’s accretion, the water together with other volatiles like carbon dioxide was partly degassed into the atmosphere, partly dissolved in the silicates. But here again, it is difficult to quantify these parts as many parameters are involved.

What is agreed on is that the last giant impact between the two remaining planetary embryos on the orbit of the Earth formed the Moon out of the debris ejected into space. The impact energy was great enough to entirely or mainly melt the Earth. So this involved the whole planet with the result that a differentiation took place, the heaviest materials like iron and nickel segregating to the core and lighter ones rising upwards according to their density, thus forming layers around an iron/nickel core. The heat was sufficient to not only melt silicates but even to vaporize them during a short time. So the protoEarth was surrounded by a heavy atmosphere consisting mainly of silicate vapor, steam and other volatiles, which was also segregated with the heaviest gases below and the lighter ones like steam above. Therefore, the atmospheric pressure was several times higher than at present. The solubility of gaseous components in liquids increases with pressure, which is why bottled beer or champagne release partly carbon dioxide because the pressure suddenly drops on opening the bottle. Thereby, much of water and carbon dioxide were solved in the liquid silicate mantle. The estimates vary, but several actual oceans could have been buried in the mantle (Holland 1984 pp. 76-82; Zahnle et al. 1988; Sleep et al. 2001; Zahnle et al. 2007; Elkins-Tanton 2008; Zahnle et al. 2010; Elkins-Tanton 2011; Dishoeck et al. 2014).

So here we have a separation of the waters: those that remained dissolved in the liquid rock of the mantle (low waters) and those that rose as steam to the upper atmosphere (high waters), where they formed thick clouds, much thicker than those that form presently because much more water was in the atmosphere in these days due to the heat. Clouds consist indeed of small condensed droplets, which only form when steam cools down. This can only happen far from Earth’s surface. Because of the heat, a part of Earth’s water content also escaped to space from the outermost atmospheric region (Zahnle et al. 2007 p. 50; Rothery et al. 2011 p. 160). The remaining steam will rain down after cooling, but this is an event of the third day, as we are going to see. Between those low and high waters there was the rather dry lower atmosphere consisting of rock vapor and other heavy gases.

The early atmosphere certainly also contained a lot of dust, produced and stirred up by the last impact. Therefore, it was completely opaque, also because of the heavy clouds. So little or no light from the Sun reached Earth’s soil (Ross 2001b pp. 24-25). After the dust particles settled, the lower part probably became transparent but only dimly illuminated because there were still opaque clouds. This stage is comparable to the very dick and opaque atmosphere that can be observed on Venus today, except that it lacks water. Images made by the Soviet Venera 13 spacecraft in 1982 on Venus’s surface show indeed that the sight is transparent (Allègre 2001 pp. 196-197; Rothery et al. 2011 p. 7). This transparency confers it the heavenly aspect of the expanse referred to by Genesis 1:8.

Earth’s iron core was liquid. Currently, only the outer core is liquid. In any case, its convection movements began to create a magnetic field, which protects the Earth from the solar wind. In a magnetic field, charged particles like electrons and protons are deviated through the Lorentz force making circular movements. Thereby, solar wind particles were deviated from their straight trajectory towards Earth and could not hit its atmosphere anymore. At both poles of the Earth, these particles are nevertheless able to penetrate the atmosphere, causing spectacular aurorae (northern and southern lights). Other phenomena include geomagnetic storms that can knock out power grids on Earth and plasma tails of comets, always pointing away from the Sun (Rothery et al. 2011 pp. 44-45, 195-198).

Without a magnetic field, the atmosphere would permanently be bombarded with these particles, resulting in a loss of different gases and water vapor. It is thought that Mars initially had a magnetic field and a lot of water reserves. However, Mars is smaller than Earth, which is why it cooled more rapidly and eventually its liquid iron core became solid. So the convection currents ceased and with it the magnetic field. From this stage, most of the water on Mars was lost because the solar wind swept away the water vapor in the high atmosphere. Thereby, from the moment when the magnetosphere was created, helped by the increased gravity, the Earth could retain most volatile substances, except very light gases like hydrogen and helium, and a second atmosphere was built up (Wood et al. 2005; Dehant et al. 2007), the first having been stripped away by stellar winds, as discussed in the previous section.

 

1.3.3 The Late Veneer

As the second reference of Genesis 1:6-8 is linked to the accretion and differentiation of the whole Earth until the last giant impact about 4.5 Ga, the third one should concern the final accretion limited to its surface (fig. 3 and tab. 2) during a time when the mantle had solidified meanwhile, which will be discussed in section 1.4.1. Earth’s surface continued indeed to be bombarded with meteorites, asteroids, comets and leftover planetesimals. But these late impactors were smaller compared to the Moon-forming planetary embryo. So they were not able to melt the whole Earth but only its surface. Witnesses of this time are metals and siderophile elements (metal-seeking elements) present in the crust, which would have segregated to the core if the mantle still had been liquid. It is estimated that the weight of this additional matter was about 0.5% of the Earth’s final mass, which is why it is often called late veneer in order to emphasize that it was only delivered to Earth’s surface (; Davis et al. 2014 p. 813; Walker et al. 2015; Genda et al. 2017). This corresponds nevertheless to a layer 5 to 20 km thick on a planetary scale (Sleep 2016).

There is debate about whether the late veneer was just the end of a monotonically declining impact flux or whether there has been a late spike in the influx of impactors called the late heavy bombardment (or LHB for short) occurring around 3.8 Ga. The LHB has indeed left behind numerous craters on the Moon, which is why this event is sometimes also called lunar cataclysm, while on Earth most craters were destroyed by plate tectonics. According to the dating of the rock samples from the craters brought back by the Apollo missions, the LHB seems to describe a surge of impactors. Subsequently, some theoretical models were proposed to explain this surge. The best known was named after the city of Nice (France), where it was developed. It is based on the Grand Tack scenario and thereby also involves the migration of the giant outer planets, scattering mainly asteroids on the Moon and Earth but a later stage (Zahnle et al. 2007 pp. 65-68; Walsh et al. 2012; Raymond et al. 2014 pp. 611; Davies et al. 2014 pp. 790-797; Morbidelli & Wood 2015; Rothery et al. 2018 pp. 315-316). According to more recent studies, it seems that the monotonic accretion tail end is favored (Morbidelli et al. 2018; Nesvorný et al. 2023).

Another debate concerns the water content of the late impactors. There are authors (e.g., Albarède 2009; Peslier et al. 2017) who argue that the Earth accreted completely or rather dry before the Moon-forming impact and received its whole water content only during the late veneer. However, most scholars do not adhere to this view for various reasons. This does not mean that the late veneer was completely dry. Water was certainly brought to Earth during its late accretion, even though here again an exact quantification is difficult, as the origin of the late material brought on Earth is uncertain. The average wet/dry matter ratio of the late impactors was probably not very different from that of the earlier accreted materials. So the amount of water delivered by the late veneer was just proportional to the overall infall of its mass, which implies that the main water supply occurred during Earth’s early accretion (Kasting & Catling 2003 pp. 433-435; Righter et al. 2008; Saal et al. 2013; Davis et al. 2014 p. 813; Dishoeck et al. 2014 pp. 853-854; O’Brien et al. 2018; Carter & Stewart 2022; Halliday & Canup 2023).

What is essential for us in this debate is that, compared to the former giant impactors, relatively small objects containing some water hit Earth’s surface, whether or not the influx was continuously decreasing or a surge took place. So no new differentiation down to the core occurred. Nevertheless, it is thought that objects larger than 500 km could have boiled away the entire ocean, which meanwhile had rained down. Still larger objects were able to melt as well as vaporize partly a silicate layer (Zahnle et al. 2007. pp. 69-70). Thereby, we have here a similar situation to that before the Moon-forming accretion, just limited to Earth’s surface instead of involving the whole planet.

This is why the separation of the waters must be understood analogously: the impact energy of the incoming hydrated bodies degassed their volatile content, boiled away the ocean, melted and vaporized a thin layer of Earth’s silicate surface. The result was a heavy steam troposphere around the Earth, the high waters. The other part of the waters remained solved in the molten silicates, the low waters. In between, there was a rather dry rock vapor atmosphere, which in this scenario again assumes the role of the expanse separating the low and high waters.

Apart from steam and sulfates, the atmosphere in this early stage was also made up of carbon dioxide and nitrogen. Cloud formation in such an atmosphere happened in the same way as in present days, although the composition has radically changed: carbon dioxide has almost disappeared, the amount of nitrogen did not change a lot, but oxygen was later added by vegetal activity. Thermal air convection causes the water vapor to rise to altitudes where temperatures fall under the dew point. Then, the vapor condenses in the form of droplets or ice crystals thus forming an aerosol with the surrounding gases. This is why clouds only form at a certain altitude. When the density of the droplets or crystals increases, they coagulate together and at some point it either rains or snows. So clouds contain much more water than the air beneath them.

The impacts of the late veneer also ejected a lot of dust into the atmosphere, where they remain for a long time and hinder sunlight to reach Earth’s soil, which darkens the sky. This is comparable to volcanic eruptions, casting out a lot of dust into the atmosphere. Another component ejected from volcanoes is sulfur dioxide, which is then transformed into sulfuric acid aerosols. Such clouds can remain for years in the atmosphere and have an important impact on climate. The Pinatuba eruption in 1991, for instance, produced about 25 megatons of sulfate aerosols that remained in the sky for over two years and reduced the global temperature for half a degree Celsius (Self et al. 1993). Now, if thousands of such volcanoes are erupting on Earth as in the Archean, the only light sources remaining to illuminate Earth’s soil are glowing lava flows (Reeves 1988 p. 163; Allègre 2001 pp. 191-192; McCarthy & Rubidge 2005 p. 45; Condi 2011 pp. 231, 430).

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