The Genesis Question: Scientific Advances and the Accuracy of Genesis

Hugh Ross; Mark Jones; Robert Lambourne; James B. Hartle; Rennan Barkana; Cristina Chiappini; Hubert Reeves; Stephen Hawking; Claude Allègre; Heinrich Holland; David Rothery; Neil McBride; Iain Gilmour; T. Montmerle; J. Augereau; M. Chaussidon; M. Gounelle; B. Marty; A. Morbidelli; D. Jewitt; L. Chizmadia; R. Grimm; D. Prialnik; Gregory Cootsona; Martin Albl; Maurizio Gasperini; Hubert Reeves; Bernard J. T. Jones; H. Bond; E. Nelan; D. VandenBerg; G. Schaefer; D Harmer; Albert Zeilinger

1.2 First Day

Abstract

The second verse of Genesis contains three clauses, each of which refers to different stages in cosmic evolution according to rule number two. It begins with the word erets after it was already used in the first verse and therefore indicates, according to rule number three, a restriction of the context to something formed a certain time after the big bang and having an earthy aspect. The restriction from the invisible to our visible world has already been done by the first verse. So it must be a restriction from the visible world to something inside this frame. The correct context cannot be directly extracted from Genesis, because it is a very concise description of creation. Thereby, there is a lot of information that is lacking in the description. In order to fill these gaps, one must look very carefully at nature.

The Milky Way
Protoplanetary Disks and Cyclones
The Universe Is Lit Up
Multi-Reference
References

1.2.1 The Milky Way

The earth was formless and void, and darkness lay upon the face of the abyss, a wind of God was hovering over the surface of the waters (Gen 1:2).

According to Ross (2001b p. 19), Genesis 1:2 makes a shift directly from the whole universe to Earth’s surface. This is not entirely correct because there are intermediate steps, which becomes clear if we take a look at the structure of the universe: an observer of the nocturnal sky would say it is evenly filled with stars. In a very clear night, preferably at high altitude, he would discover a dim milky glowing band, the Milky Way. A closer look with an armed eye unveils that this dim band is made of billions of stars. With far-reaching telescopes capable of observing the universe beyond the Milky Way, one discovers a universe that is evenly distributed with such huge groups of stars called galaxies. The Milky Way is only one among billions of such galaxies.

So the first level of structure is indeed the whole universe, including the invisible spiritual world, which encompasses our visible physical world. Its matter is regrouped in galaxies, which scatter from each other. Thereby, the biggest objects of the visible world are its galaxies, from which a shift – or preferably . From there, the creation account makes a restriction to our solar system and from there to the Earth and finally to its surface, as schematized by figure 3.

Figure 3: the four analogously structured levels of the universe, each of which is part of the previous one.

In the first clause of Genesis 1:2, erets is said to be formless and void. According to the gap theory, this is the tohu wabohu (sec. 1.1.5). In Hebrew, the conjunction and is expressed by the letter waw, which is pronounced w followed by a vowel and directly prepended to the next word. So tohu and bohu can also be written as tohu wabohu. However, this has nothing to do with the Devil. In fact, the primitive matter the big bang produced was essentially hydrogen gas with some helium and traces of lithium (Jones & Lambourne 2004 p. 1). These gases were initially more or less regularly dispersed in space. Hence, they were formless like sand in a desert, almost uniform in all places and without clues that could have given any orientation to an observer. Most cosmological models are based upon such uniform matter distribution (Hartle 2003 p. 366). At least about 400 million years after the big bang, the gas regrouped by gravitational attraction and formed the first stars and galaxies creating much void space between them (Jones & Lambourne 2004 p. 110; Barkana 2006). Here we see again that according to rule number two there is a lot of elapsed time between tohu and bohu.

The Milky Way started to form as a proto-galaxy early after the big bang. After about one billion years, it had its bulge and halo around it (Chiappini 2001). In the galactic center is a massive black hole, which was probably present very early too (Jones & Lambourne 2004 pp. 51-52), possibly already in the proto-galaxy. Black holes form through high density conditions, which occurred at the big bang, in the centers of stars during their gravitational collapse or at the end of very massive stars when they explode in a supernova. According to general relativity, black holes are point-like objects with infinite density, which is called a singularity comparable to that of the big bang (sec. 1.1.4). According to Newtonian mechanics, the gravity between two bodies is inversely proportional to their squared distance. As a consequence, if someone stood on the surface of a shrinking star, the gravity exerted on the person would increase while the mass of the star would remain constant. The gravity of a star shrinking to a singularity would become infinite at this point. Quantum mechanics predict very small but not point-like black holes, so with finite density (Reeves 1995 pp. 129-139; Hawking 1998 pp. 52, 63).

In any case, the matter compression and resulting gravity of a black hole is so strong that all matter within a certain distance from it is absorbed. Even light particles are absorbed because they move with finite velocity so that a finite force can retain them. This is why the frontier from where the light waves are absorbed is at a certain distance away from the center. Therefore, there is empty space between the punctual mass and this spherical frontier, which is called the event horizon of the black hole (Hartle pp. 7-9). The radius of the horizon for a black hole of one solar mass would be 3 kilometers; for one of fifty solar masses it would be 147 kilometers, and so on. Consequently, black holes appear as relatively large abysses of profound darkness despite the fact that all their mass is concentrated within an almost dimensionless point.

So we expect the second clause of Genesis 1:2, “darkness lay upon the face of the abyss”, to refer to our galaxy. The Hebrew word paniym (face) stands indeed for the surface of the ground (Gen 2:6) or of the earth (Gen 4:14). The event horizon of a black hole is effectively a spherical surface. Tehom (abyss) is used for the depth of the earth (Ps 71:20), of the ocean (Gen 7:11) or of a large body of water (Ex 15:5). The fraction of hydrogen atoms in the water molecule H₂O is exactly two thirds, the other third being the oxygen atom. As a result, hydrogen is, depending on the number of atoms, the main component of water. Thereby, it comes as no surprise that the word was formed from the Greek hydro (water) and genos (origin). So in the absence of a Hebrew word for an abyss of hydrogen, which is the earth, that is, the matter of the first clause, the inspired author chose tehom to perfectly encapsulate the early stage of our galaxy: a black hole swallowing the surrounding hydrogen from all directions into its deep and dark pit.

Paniym is also used in the third clause, “a wind of God was hovering over the surface of the waters”, where it has another meaning because it refers to an advanced stage in the evolution of our galaxy. In fact, after sufficient gathering of hydrogen, very often galaxies become flat rotating spiral disks having the look of a big water swirl or of cyclones (fig. 4). This was also the case of the Milky Way, which therefore formed a rotating surface of “waters”, that is, mainly hydrogen (Allègre 2001 p. 50; Jones & Lambourne 2004 pp. 5-8).

Some other words in the third clause sustain this view: rachaph means hover, flutter or shake according to the context and only occurs two more times in the entire Thora: in Jeremiah 23:9, where it means shake, and in Deuteronomy 32:11: “Like an eagle that stirs up its nest, hovering over its young...” the meaning there is not immediately clear. This is why rachaph is sometimes translated by flutter, which would mean that the eagle is staying directly above its young by fluttering its wings. However, usually only little birds are capable of performing such a standing flight for a prolonged time. For big birds like eagles, this is very energy consuming. This is why it makes more sense if the eagle hovers or glides in the high sky by making horizontal arcs around its nest, which an eagle can easily do for a prolonged time.

This also better corresponds to the image given by the entire context: God’s watching from heaven over the Israelite people is compared with the eagle’s taking care of its young from above. An eagle gliding high in the sky corresponds better to this image. That such a movement is meant is also confirmed by the verb ur (stir up) in the sense of watching the environment to protect the nest from potential predators. This implies that the eagle is hovering in a plane at a certain constant high above its nest, so it does not flatter near it. This sense of rachaph agrees very well with the slow movement of a flat rotating spiral disk.

This example of the eagle, resembling God by watching over its young, shows that there are countless images in nature that reflect the Creator to varying degrees. Humans are certainly at the first place in this sense because they are created in the image of God (Gen 1:26). But animals can also represent God’s image. Jesus is indeed often called God’s Lamb (Jn 1:29; Rev :6-14). Furthermore, resembles Christ, who is surrounded by the twelve Apostles, which shows that God’s image is even reproduced on a material level (secs. 1.4.3 and 1.5.1).

This is also valid for the “wind of God” in Genesis 1:2. In fact, ruach (wind) can also mean spirit and thereby refers to God’s Spirit poured out on his creation in order to gather it around him and save it (Joel 2:28-32; Ac 2:1-21). Now, the water of baptism is an image of God’s Spirit (Mt 3:11; Ac 1:5). As discussed above, hydrogen is an image for water, which thereby is an image for spirit. This is why centers of gravity like galaxies and stars reflect the “wind of God” because they gather gaseous material around them similar to the Creator, who is gathering his creation around himself through his Spirit. It is entirely appropriate here to speak of a wind, because most atmospheric circulations are caused through gravity by spiraling into the “abyss” of a low-pressure area. The same force is responsible for the rotating disks of galaxies and stars in formation.

The approach of hydrogen to “The waters” of Genesis 1:2 is nevertheless only approximate, of course. Not only because ancient Hebrew does not have a proper word for hydrogen and thereby the nearest possible term to describe hydrogen is used. Genesis 1:2 effectively refers at the same time to situations where real water is involved. We have already seen that some words like shamayim and erets have multiple meanings. The same is true for the “water whirl” referred to by “a wind of God was hovering over the surface of the waters”. This image is not only recognizable in the spiral nebula out of which our solar system and the Earth were formed but also in the cyclones that rotated over the water surface of the primitive ocean to which they gave birth, as we shall see in the next section. So multiple meanings are based on the analogy between various objects of reference, which inevitably results in approximations.

1.2.2 Protoplanetary Disks and Cyclones

Genesis 1:2 refers to our galaxy in the first place. On a lower level, however, this verse also refers to our Sun as a second reference according to rule number three because the Sun was born analogously to our galaxy, that is, by a “formless” nebula of hydrogen and dust, triggering a contraction at some point, leaving behind much “void” space and transforming itself into a spiral protoplanetary disk about 4.6 billion years ago, which is also a date that can be retrieved from the patriarchs’ ages. This does not contradict with the fact that the creation of the Sun, the Moon and the stars is mentioned only on the fourth day (Gen 1:14-19) because this passage does not refer to the creation of these celestial bodies but to another event related to them (sec. 1.5.1). Furthermore, this does not mean that the Sun was created on the same day as our galaxy, that is, the first day (Gen 1:5). As explained in the introduction, there is time elapsing between the various objects of references. The solar system is explicitly referred to by the second day (sec. 1.3.1).

French scientist Pierre-Simon Laplace already suggested in 1796 that the solar system may have been formed by the gravitational collapse of a large cloud of gas and dust (Holland 1984 p. 3). Such so-called molecular clouds are the product of myriads of stars transforming hydrogen into helium through nuclear fusion and then successively into all other chemical elements up to iron. This process liberates energy while fusion of heavier elements than iron consumes energy. Hence, the elements beyond iron were not formed by nucleosynthesis in stars but by other processes. One of them is supernova nucleosynthesis, which occurs under the extremely high temperatures and pressures in the center of such explosions. As a result, the initial solar cloud was made of leftovers of mainly supernovae and contained all the chemical elements naturally existing on Earth (Allègre 2002 pp. 63-82, 104-105; Rothery et al. 2011 p. 287).

Turbulence physics is similar on both small and large scales. This is why the contraction of such clouds consisting mainly of hydrogen gas and dust occurs in a similar way as galactic contraction, just on a smaller scale. They can remain almost in the same stage for a long time because their particles undergo random collisions, which creates an outward pressure, counteracting gravitational collapse. But under certain circumstances (a shock wave from a nearby supernova, the passage of the cloud through one of the Galaxy’s spiral arms, two clouds interacting, and so on), it may start to fragment into individual clouds, each of which may collapse or not individually. This implies that the solar cloud was not entirely motionless but had an almost imperceptible rotation. Depending on the direction of motion of the particles, most of them were swallowed up by the cloud’s center, the remaining ended up in an orbit perpendicular to the rotation axis because of the centrifugal force and gas pressure counterbalancing gravitational attraction. In other words, the solar cloud was flattened into a fast whirling disk like a spinning ice skater who rotates faster when pulling in the arms because of conservation of angular momentum (Allègre 2002 pp. 111-114, 136-137; Rothery et al. 2011 pp. 23, 287-294).

Thanks to the IRIS satellite and the Hubble telescope, such collapsing gas and dust clouds could be observed for the first time. Even though these protostars are too far away that a spiral form in their disk could be recognized, it is nevertheless beyond doubt that they have one because spirals always appear in similar turbulent systems whether the scales are large or small (fig. 4). Furthermore, these stars often eject matter in jets perpendicular to the disk, which is an undeniable characteristic of a rotating disk on the scale of both galaxies and stars (fig. 6; Allègre 2001 pp. 115-116; Jones & Lambourne 2004 pp. 71, 141).

Figure4: Spiral galaxies, cyclones and water whirls have a similar form, referred to as the “wind of God hovering over the surface of the waters” (Gen 1:2).

Polar vortices centered near the poles of a planet are a special form of cyclones. They are permanent low-pressure areas looking sometimes like a big hurricane. They are found on Earth, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn (fig. 4) and even its moon Titan. Since they are permanent, they were certainly also present at the time when the Earth’s atmosphere started to build up and may have been dominant over the whole planet at the example of the vortices on Venus, of which the atmosphere is similar to that of the early Earth because of its hot temperature and the high concentration of carbon dioxide.

As can be seen in the vortex of Saturn, there are even little spiral turbulences inside the arms of the whole system. This is why it is probable that inside the solar disk appeared likewise little systems of spiral knots finally giving birth to the planets (Montmerle et al. 2006 p. 77). The result of such mini-systems with a planet in the center instead of a star is still visible in the numerous moons that orbit like little planets around Saturn and Jupiter. They orbit all in the same sense and almost in the same orbital plane as their mother planet. One of them, Ganymede, is even larger than Mercury. This is why it is likely that there was also a spiral turbulence knot on the orbit of the future Earth, which kept the rotation around itself from this initial terrestrial spiral (Allègre 2001 pp. 114, 138; Rothery et al. 2011 p. 294).

In the beginning of the formation of the solar system, water was omnipresent because oxygen is, after hydrogen and helium, the third most abundant element in the universe. As we know, water is precisely formed from hydrogen and oxygen, which is why water is the second most abundant molecule in astrophysical environments where the temperature is below its thermal dissociation limit at 2000 Kelvin. These environments include almost the entire protoplanetary disk of the Sun (Jewitt et al. 2007). Thereby, the rotating protoplanetary disk can be considered a second reference of “the surface of the waters”. For similar reasons, a third reference also applies to the disk of the future planet Earth, which is the next cosmic structure after the solar system (fig. 3).

A last and fourth reference of Genesis 1:2 is made in the frame of Earth’s surface, the last cosmic level: as we will see, our planet formed an incandescent sphere of molten stone at the end of its formation. At this stage, its gravitational force became strong enough to accumulate water vapor and other gases, especially carbon dioxide, in its atmosphere. Due to the high temperatures, powerful winds and cyclones must have reigned during this time. In present days, cyclones, like hurricanes and typhoons, form spiral cloudy disks rotating around their center, mostly above the sea in latitudes where it is hot. Hence, the primordial vortex and other cyclones certainly had the same form, with the difference of having been much bigger and stronger.

1.2.3 The Universe Is Lit Up

And God said, ‘Let there be light’, and there was light. God saw that light was good, and God divided light from darkness. God called light ‘day’, and darkness he called ‘night’. Evening came and morning came: the first day (Gen 1:3-5).

Cosmologists are able to trace back the radiation energy density to the very beginning of the universe: while presently radiation plays a minor role in the overall energy density, it was the predominant form of energy density – exceeding even that of matter – during about 10’000 years after the big bang (Jones & Lambourne 2004 p. 266). Naively extrapolating this to the big bang, some authors believe that at time zero there was only light transforming itself into matter according to Einstein’s famous equation E=mc², relating energy to mass times the squared speed of light. In other words, they link God’s first spoken word “let there be light” to the big bang (Cootsona 2002 p. 49; Albl 2009 p. 82), which prompts cosmologist Maurizio Gasperini (2008 p. 195) to state, “one can read anything into the Bible, provided one looks carefully enough into it”.

While I don’t think that this is an accurate statement, it is indeed not known what exactly happened during the Planck-time (sec. 1.1.4). And at around 10^-12 seconds after time zero, there were already all kinds of quarks and leptons (electrons, neutrinos, etc.) around together with their corresponding antiparticles as well as photons, interaction particles and dark matter. There was a slight imbalance between matter and antimatter with the result that a small part of matter prevailed over antimatter after their annihilation, which produced a lot of energy in the form of light according to Einstein’s equation, that is, about 10⁹ photons for every baryon (protons and neutrons) and lepton (Jones & Lambourne pp. 278-281). Thereby, it seems that there was first matter according to Genesis 1:1 and light only thereafter according to Genesis 1:3.

Though, the photons could not propagate freely at first. Due to the high temperature and density, electrons were not bound to nucleons. Such a state of matter is called plasma as found inside stars. The photons collided with these free electrons such that their mean path was very short. As a result, without free propagation of light particles, a human observer would have seen nothing in such a universe. This total darkness lasted for about 400’000 years after the big bang (Reeves 1994 p. 129; Hartle 2003 p. 375; Jones & Lambourne 2004 p. 262).

Only after sufficient expansion and cooling were the electrons bound to nucleons to form mainly hydrogen, but also some helium and lithium, which is called the era of recombination or time of last scattering. Photons could then propagate freely, which marks a transition from opacity to transparency. From this epoch results the cosmic microwave background (CMB), which is like a gas of photons, traveling uniformly in all directions like gas particles. It is still observable in present times and constitutes an important proof of the big bang theory (sec. 1.1.2). As the name indicates, the mean frequency of the CMB is in the microwave range. This radiation is indeed an afterglow of the big bang, which meanwhile has redshifted into microwave frequencies (Jones 2017 pp. 48-76), so it is not visible to the human eye. By the time of last scattering, its frequency was about 1’100 times higher. So it was in the infrared range and would still have been invisible to the human eye (Jones & Lambourne 2004 pp. 291-293).

According to table 2, the main context of the first creation day is our galaxy. Therefore, the light created on the first day must mainly be searched within this context because it is referring to daylight, that is, light visible to the human eye. In fact, the first visible light emitted in the universe came mainly from stars. The oldest stars of the Milky Way are found in its spherical halo surrounding the galactic center. The formation of the halo was one of the first steps in galactic history. The stars in the halo are population II stars and are almost as old as the universe itself (Jones & Lambourne 2004 ch. 1). The as yet oldest star found is HD 140283 with an estimated age of at least 13.6 billion years (Bond et al. 2013).

This is why the first stars in the Milky Way brought our local universe out of darkness and illuminated it like the nocturnal lights of a big city in accordance with Genesis 1:3-5. For this reason, the Jews start the day not at midnight but at sunset in order to respect this passage from initial darkness to light of the universe (Zeilinger 1986 p. 53). One can conclude from this that the length of one day is not directly connected to a 24-hour period determined by the rotation of the Earth around itself because both our planet and the Sun were not created in the beginning (sec. 1.1.1). Thereby, the creation days must be distinguished from our earthly days, even though they can be put in analogy with each other in a very broad sense.

1.2.4 Multi-Reference

Let us summarize the four references to spiral objects of Genesis 1:2:

the formation of our galaxy by a spiral nebula.
the birth of our solar system by a spiral disk.
the initial formation of the Earth by a spiral form.
the formation of the polar vortices and great cyclones in the Earth’s troposphere also having a spiral form.

So these four references of Genesis 1:2 are based on the spiral structure of the diverse erets in formation, which are not yet very terrestrial because they are only composed of hydrogen and/or water mixed with dust. The Hebrew word mayim for waters is, by the way, effectively written in the plural like shamayim in Genesis 1:1, which furthermore emphasizes its multi-significance. In table 2, the four references are aligned vertically like the five references of Genesis 1:1, which each resume the initial state of an object and evolve chronologically from above to below, as outlined by rule number one (sec. 1.1.6). Genesis 1:2 refers to an advanced state of these objects.

This principle is valid for all four days. So a vertical reading leaves out the stages summarized in the corresponding text boxes on the right. Thereby, a chronological reading must be done horizontally from the left to the right, line after line like a normal text. Thereby, the lines are interwoven with the vertical chronology, kind of like a crossword puzzle. This can also be compared with the red thread of a story, which follows the events chronologically. In Genesis there is also such a horizontal red thread. But since it is interwoven with the vertical chronology, the text is more like a woven piece of cloth.

ORIGIN OF TIME Genesis 1:1 In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.
Limitation to the physical world	FIRST DAY Genesis 1:2 the earth was formless and void, and darkness lay upon the face of the abyss, a wind of God was hovering over the surface of the waters.
Space-time and matter
1st restriction: from the universe to our galaxy		SECOND DAY Genesis 1:6-8 Let there be an expanse between the waters to separate water from water.
Galactic space and our galaxy	The formation of our galaxy (Milky Way) by a spiral nebula containing hydrogen
2nd restriction: from our galaxy to our solar system			THIRD DAY Genesis 1:9 Let the waters under the heavens be gathered unto one place, and let the dry land appear.
solar space and our solar system	The birth of our solar system by a collapsing spiral cloud containing hydrogen and water	Formation of the protoSun (low waters), the inner planets with little water (the separation) and the icy outer planets (high waters) caused by stellar winds and held together by the solar gravitational field
3rd restriction: from our solar system to the planet Earth				FOURTH DAY Genesis 1:14-19 Let there be lights in the vault of heaven to divide day from night.
Atmosphere and our planet	The initial formation of the Earth by a collapsing spiral form containing hydrogen, dust and water	Accretion of wet planetesimals leading to melting and segregation of materials: the mantle mixed with water (low waters) surrounded by the atmosphere containing a lot of water vapor (high waters)	Solidification of the mantle releasing its dissolved water into the atmosphere, from where it rained out in the primitive ocean; formation of the first crust
Limitation to Earth’s surface
troposphere, ocean and continents	The formation of big cyclones over the ocean and polar vortices also having spiral forms	The late accretion of smaller wet bodies causes local surface melts and partial degassing of steam into the troposphere (high waters); the rest of the waters remain in a silicate layer (low waters)	Solidification of the superficially melted mantle, releasing its water content into the troposphere forming a thick cloud layer; emergence of continents and first life forms	Daylight through openings in the cloud layer allowing the light of celestial bodies to shine on Earth’s surface.

Table 2: Summary of all references made by the first four days to the evolution of the material universe and the Earth. Vertical reading yields all references for a specific creation day. Horizontal reading yields the evolution on a specific cosmic level.

Based on these multi-references, the following creation days will be interpreted in the same manner, that is, a given day refers to an advanced stage of the objects in question compared to the previous day, which will be discussed in detail in the next chapters. This has been taken into account in table 2, which lists all references of a certain day in its corresponding column. Furthermore, each day implies a restriction to a lower cosmic level. A given day only makes references to levels beneath this restriction. Therefore, a specific day has one reference less than the previous day.

The stairs of table 2 represent these restrictions in accordance with figure 3: at first, a limitation is made from the superior duality invisible world/visible world to intergalactic space/galaxies inside the visible world. The limitation from the Earth as a whole to its surface on the fourth level is similar to this first limitation on the first level, that is, it is made from the superior duality atmosphere/our planet to ocean/continents inside the planet Earth. If our universe were a three-dimensional spherically curved surface inside a four-dimensional flat Euclidean space (sec. 1.1.2), this would support this analogy even further since the Earth’s surface can be considered a two-dimensional space inside the surrounding flat three-dimensional space.

A limitation is the same as a restriction, but the second word is used for the reductions of the frame made from many objects towards a single object (fig. 3) to distinguish them from the limitations mentioned above. On the first level, these objects are the galaxies, from which a restriction is made to our galaxy (first restriction). Then inside our galaxy are the stars, from which our Sun is privileged (second restriction). Finally, inside our solar system are the orbiting planets, from which the attention is given to our Earth (third restriction). The first column defines the space in which the evolution of a certain cosmic level takes place. Furthermore, because there are only five references in the first column, the decreasing number of references at each consecutive day can only go up to the fourth day, otherwise the fifth and sixth days would have no references at all, which makes out of the fourth day a special one, as we are going to see.

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